Elon Musk

Elon Reeve Musk (born June 28, 1971) is an engineer, entrepreneur, and business magnate. He holds South African citizenship by birth, Canadian citizenship through his mother, and became a U.S. citizen in 2002.[1][2][3][4]Musk holds leadership roles at Tesla, which develops electric vehicles, battery energy storage, and autonomous driving technologies; SpaceX, which develops reusable rockets and satellite internet constellations; and xAI and X, focused on artificial intelligence and digital platforms.[5][6][7] His early ventures include co-founding Zip2, an online business directory sold to Compaq in 1999, and X.com, which merged into PayPal and was acquired by eBay in 2002.[8][9] He founded Neuralink in 2016 to develop brain-machine interfaces and [The Boring Company](/The Boring Company) in 2016 for urban tunneling projects.[10][11][12]As of December 2025, Forbes estimates Musk's net worth at $749 billion, derived primarily from his stakes in Tesla, SpaceX, and xAI, positioning him as the wealthiest individual in the world.[13] His public profile includes advocacy for innovation, population growth, reduced government intervention, and free speech, as well as political involvement.[14]

Early Life

Childhood and Family Background

Elon Reeve Musk was born on June 28, 1971, in Pretoria, South Africa, the eldest child of Errol Musk, an electromechanical engineer and property developer, and Maye Musk (née Haldeman), a model and dietitian. His paternal grandmother, Cora Amelia Robinson, grew up very poor in England during the Great Depression, survived bombings in World War II, and cleaned houses to earn money for food.[15] He has two younger siblings, Kimbal and Tosca.[16][17]Accounts of the family's financial situation vary. Errol has claimed ownership of luxury cars, a large home, private planes, and European vacations. Maye described some affluence at the time of their 1979 divorce, noting Errol's assets including homes, a yacht, aircraft, and cars, contrasted with her post-divorce struggles raising the children on a limited budget.[18] Musk has described growing up in a lower- to upper-middle-income household.[19] Errol's partial stake in a Zambian emerald mine in the 1980s yielded modest profits before failing.[20][21][22][23]Errol and Maye met at the University of Pretoria, married in 1970, and divorced in 1979 when Musk was eight. Maye described the marriage as abusive; in her memoir A Woman Makes a Plan, she recounted Errol chasing her through the streets with a knife post-separation.[24] Following the divorce, Musk and Kimbal briefly lived with their mother before primarily residing with their father from around age 10 to 17, a decision Musk later regretted, characterizing Errol as manipulative. Family members have alleged domestic abuse by Errol, which he has denied.[25][26][27][28] Despite this, Musk and his brother provided Errol financial support for over 20 years after his bankruptcy.[18][29][30][31][32]Errol has faced allegations of sexually abusing children and stepchildren since 1993, reported in a New York Times investigation based on family statements, police reports, court records, and interviews, which Errol has denied.[33]Post-divorce, Maye supported the family through modeling and nutritional counseling amid financial hardship. Musk has credited her resilience and work ethic as key influences, while distancing himself from his father.[34]

Education and Early Influences

Musk attended Waterkloof House Preparatory School and Bryanston High School before transferring to Pretoria Boys High School in South Africa, from which he graduated in 1988.[35][36] While awaiting approval for his move to Canada, Musk briefly attended the University of Pretoria for five months.[35]Musk has credited extensive reading during his youth with shaping his worldview.[37] Key influences included science fiction works such as Isaac Asimov's Foundation series, J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, and Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, which Musk has said fostered his interests in physics, engineering, and multi-planetary expansion.[38][39]In June 1989, at age 17, Musk relocated to Canada. Upon arrival, he worked various odd jobs, including at a lumber mill and on a farm.[40][41] He enrolled at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, in 1990, attending for two years.[42]He then transferred to the University of Pennsylvania, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts in physics in 1997 and a Bachelor of Science in economics from the Wharton School.[43][44] The University of Pennsylvania confirmed Musk's physics degree in a 2019 communication.[45] During his time there, Musk and roommate Adeo Ressi rented a large off-campus house and operated it as a weekend nightclub, charging a $5 entry fee that enabled them to cover a month's rent in one night.[46] Musk also repaired his 1978 BMW 320i using junkyard parts, as he could not afford professional repairs.[47]In 1995, Musk was accepted into Stanford University's Ph.D. program in materials science but dropped out after two days to pursue internet opportunities.[48] Musk has stated that he paid his own way through college and had $110,000 in student debt upon leaving Stanford.[49][50]

Early Entrepreneurial Ventures

Zip2

Zip2 was co-founded in 1995 by Elon Musk, his brother Kimbal Musk, and Canadian investor Greg Kouri in Palo Alto, California, initially bootstrapped with modest personal investments of a few thousand dollars each, followed by a small angel round that included contributions from their father Errol Musk. To woo investors, Elon Musk built a large plastic casing around a standard computer to give the impression that Zip2 was powered by a supercomputer.[51][25][18][54] The company's product was an early internet platform offering searchable online business directories, city guides, and mapping services tailored for newspaper publishers, serving as a digital yellow pages alternative with integrated licensed map data and local listings.[55][25] Zip2 secured contracts with major clients such as The New York Times, Chicago Tribune, and Knight-Ridder newspapers; by 1996, it raised approximately $3 million in venture capital from Mohr Davidow Ventures to support expansion.[18][25] Elon Musk served as CEO and developed initial versions of key software features, including maps, directions, and listings.[56][19]In February 1999, Compaq Computer Corporation acquired Zip2 for approximately $307 million in cash and stock, incorporating it into its AltaVista division during the dot-com era's interest in mapping and directory technologies.[19][55] Musk, holding about 7% of the company, received roughly $22 million from the sale, which provided seed capital for his subsequent ventures.[18]

X.com and PayPal

In March 1999, Elon Musk founded X.com, an online financial services firm aimed at providing banking, payments, and investment services via the internet, funded by the $22 million proceeds from the sale of Zip2.[27]In March 2000, X.com merged with Confinity, a rival startup founded by Peter Thiel that operated the PayPal payment service; the deal was structured as an acquisition of Confinity by X.com, with Musk serving as CEO and largest shareholder.[59] The combined entity initially retained the X.com name and integrated PayPal's peer-to-peer payment technology, which gained significant traction on eBay. In September 2000, the board removed Musk as CEO, citing strategic disagreements.[28] The company was renamed PayPal in 2001 to emphasize its payments focus and experienced rapid user growth.[20]By the end of 2002, PayPal had expanded to approximately 23 million accounts, driven by eBay integration, leading eBay to acquire it in October 2002 for $1.5 billion in stock; Musk received about $176 million from his stake, which he reinvested into founding SpaceX and investing in Tesla.[62] After the sale, PayPal retained the X.com domain, which Musk repurchased in 2017.[63]

SpaceX

Founding and Early Challenges

Elon Musk founded Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) on May 6, 2002, using approximately $100 million from the PayPal sale to fund the company, initially headquartered in El Segundo, California. The venture aimed to reduce space launch costs through vertical integration and innovative engineering, with the long-term goal of enabling human settlement on Mars. This stemmed from Musk's failed attempts to purchase inexpensive Russian rockets for a private Mars mission, leading him to pursue in-house development.[64][65][66][67]SpaceX's first product, the Falcon 1 rocket, targeted orbital insertion of small payloads up to 670 kg. The initial three launch attempts failed due to technical issues, including a fuel line leak and staging problems. These setbacks strained the company's finances amid the 2008 financial crisis, prompting Musk to invest his remaining $40 million. Success came with the fourth launch on September 28, 2008, achieving the first private liquid-fueled orbital flight, followed by NASA's $1.6 billion CRS contract on December 23, 2008, for ISS resupply.[68][69][70]

Reusable Rocketry and Milestones

From early development, SpaceX pursued vertical takeoff and landing for cost reduction. Suborbital Grasshopper tests in 2012–2013 demonstrated hovers up to 1,000 feet. Falcon 9 first-stage recovery attempts began in 2013–2015, overcoming reentry challenges through iterative software and hardware improvements. The first orbital-class booster landing occurred on December 21, 2015, after ORBCOMM-2.[71][72]Reflights started with SES-10 on March 30, 2017. The Block 5 variant from 2018 supported multiple reuses. Falcon Heavy debuted February 6, 2018, recovering side boosters. By late 2025, individual boosters had achieved dozens of flights, with hundreds of recoveries from hundreds of launches since 2015, enabling significantly reduced mission costs and launch cadences exceeding 100 annually.[73][74]Starship development advanced reusability with prototypes testing high-altitude hops in 2020–2021, progressing to orbital flights. Integrated Flight Test 4 in June 2024 achieved booster splashdown; Flight 5 in October 2024 caught Booster 12 with the launch tower. Subsequent tests included booster reuses, engine-out simulations, and landings, with Flight 11 on October 13, 2025, refining boostback and precision. These efforts address challenges like engine relight and flaps while enabling rapid iteration.[75][76][77][78][79][80]

Engineering Philosophy & Personal Technical Contributions

Musk applied first-principles reasoning, advocating propulsive landings despite skepticism and selecting stainless steel for Starship in 2018–2019 after calculations showed advantages over carbon fiber. He influenced Raptor engine design with full-flow staged-combustion and methalox, and conceived the tower catch mechanism. Former propulsion CTO Tom Mueller confirmed Musk's evolution from high-level oversight to detailed engineering contributions, noting his growth in technical depth from structures to propulsion details over two decades. Musk contributed to Merlin engine throttling for landings via pintle injectors.[81][82][83][84][85][86]

Starlink

Under Musk's direction, Starlink deploys thousands of small satellites in low Earth orbit for global broadband, targeting remote areas. Disclosed in a 2015 FCC filing for up to 4,425 satellites, prototypes Tintin A and B launched in 2018. The first 60 production satellites flew May 23, 2019. Dedicated Falcon 9 missions accelerated buildup, with tens of thousands deployed, comprising the majority of active satellites in low Earth orbit. Thousands remain active across 340–550 km shells, using Ku/Ka-bands and laser links targeting low latency below 20 ms.[87]Beta service began in U.S. October 2020 with 50–150 Mbps speeds; global expansion covered over 100 countries by 2025, including residential, mobile, and enterprise tiers. User terminals offer up to 220 Mbps. Analyst estimates for Starlink's 2024 revenue vary, ranging from approximately $7 billion to $8.2 billion, generated from around 4 million subscribers and subscriptions. Projections for 2025 also vary across analysts, estimating subscriber growth to 7-8 million and total SpaceX revenue of $15-18 billion, dominated by Starlink.[88][89][90]

Commercial Operations

SpaceX's launch services use Falcon 9's reliability—over 300 missions by 2025—for commercial clients in communications and observation. In 2024, this yielded $4.2 billion, capturing 80% market share. Reusability cuts costs to under $3,000/kg to LEO, supporting rideshares. Contracts include SES and Intelsat; Starlink payloads form a growing share, distinct from NASA missions.[90]

Orbital Data Centers

SpaceX is advancing plans for orbital data centers dedicated to AI computing, utilizing upgraded Starlink satellites, potentially next-generation variants, to host high-density processors. These facilities would be deployed via Falcon 9 or Starship launches and powered by expansive solar arrays, providing continuous energy without terrestrial grid dependencies or atmospheric attenuation. In the vacuum of space, radiative cooling enables efficient heat rejection without the water and power demands of Earth-based systems, addressing key bottlenecks in AI scaling such as energy shortages and cooling inefficiencies. Elon Musk has stated that SpaceX "will be doing data centers in space," positioning this as a path to low-cost, abundant compute that could support AI training and inference at scales unattainable on the ground, with potential deployment timelines targeting the late 2020s. This initiative leverages SpaceX's launch dominance and integrates with Musk's broader AI efforts.[91][92][93]

Mars Colonization Ambitions

SpaceX's goal since 2002 is cost reduction for Mars colonization to ensure human survival. Musk envisions a self-sustaining city requiring 1 million tons of cargo and 100,000+ people, targeting $200,000 per-person costs via reusable Starship. He stated, "I would like to die on Mars, just not on impact."[94][95][96][97][98]Starship, fully reusable with 100-passenger capacity, relies on in-orbit refueling. Musk has proposed uncrewed Mars missions in 2026 and crewed missions by 2029, scaling to thousands of flights per synod for habitats and ISRU propellant from water ice. Phases address radiation, storms, and isolation via robotics and closed-loop systems, with Musk aiming for independence by 2050 involving 1,000 annual launches. Iterative Starship tests validate progress despite hurdles.[99][100][101][102][103][104]

Tesla

Founding and early financing

Tesla, Inc. was incorporated on July 1, 2003, by engineers Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning.[105] In February 2004, Elon Musk led the company's Series A funding round, personally investing $6.5 million of the $7.5 million raised, which made him the largest shareholder and led to his appointment as chairman of the board in April 2004.[5][105] From this position, Musk exerted significant influence over product design and engineering, particularly for the Tesla Roadster, the company's first vehicle, which began production in 2008.[5] Tesla's official biography recognizes Musk as a co-founder, a status formally granted through a 2009 settlement agreement with former CEO Martin Eberhard, reflecting his foundational financial and strategic contributions.[106][107][108]

Leadership and growth

Leadership tensions arose amid delays and cost overruns in Roadster production; Eberhard was ousted as CEO in August 2007.[109] Musk assumed the role of CEO in October 2008, during the global financial crisis. With Tesla on the brink of bankruptcy and SpaceX having achieved its first successful Falcon 1 launch on September 28, 2008, following three prior failures, Musk had exhausted nearly all of his personal savings; he frequently slept at the office or on friends' couches, borrowed money from friends to pay rent, relied on emergency loans from SpaceX investors, and navigated a public divorce.[110][70][111] He secured last-minute funding on Christmas Eve 2008 by injecting additional personal funds—totaling around $40 million from his PayPal proceeds—to prevent bankruptcy.[5][112][113]Under his direction, Tesla secured a $465 million low-interest loan from the U.S. Department of Energy in 2010, which was repaid in full with interest nine years early in 2013.[105][114] Musk's leadership emphasized vertical integration and aggressive scaling.[5] Until 2023, Tesla relied primarily on word-of-mouth, viral demonstrations, and Musk's online engagement rather than traditional advertising.[115] He has held the CEO position continuously since 2008; in March 2021, his official title was updated to include "Technoking of Tesla"—intended humorously—alongside CEO, while also serving as product architect.[116][117] Musk's CEO compensation is entirely at-risk and performance-based, consisting of stock options vesting upon achievement of operational and financial milestones, with no base salary.[118]

Products and technology

Under Musk's leadership as CEO from 2008, Tesla prioritized innovations such as regenerative braking, single-speed transmissions, and over-the-air software updates.[106] Subsequent models built on this foundation under his direction as product architect.[106] On June 12, 2014, Musk announced in a blog post titled "All Our Patent Are Belong to You" that Tesla would not enforce its electric vehicle patents against good-faith users, arguing that patents were hindering sustainable transport advancement and that Tesla's true competition lay with gasoline-powered vehicles rather than other automakers.[119]The concept for SolarCity originated from Musk's suggestion to his cousins Lyndon and Peter Rive during a 2004 trip to the Burning Man festival.[120] SolarCity was founded in July 2006 by the Rive cousins, with Musk providing initial seed funding of $10 million and serving as chairman.[121][122]Musk led Tesla's acquisition of SolarCity on August 1, 2016, for approximately $2.6 billion in stock, integrating it into Tesla Energy to combine solar generation with battery storage.[123][124] Musk described the acquisition as essential for accelerating the transition to renewable energy.[125] The deal faced shareholder lawsuits alleging conflicts of interest, but a Delaware Chancery Court ruled in 2022 that the transaction was fair, affirmed by the Delaware Supreme Court in June 2023.[126][127]Under Musk’s leadership, Tesla pursued vertical integration of its battery supply chain, acquiring Maxwell Technologies in 2019 for its dry-electrode manufacturing processes.[128] At its 2020 Battery Day event, Tesla announced the 4680 tabless cell design and claimed up to five times more energy per cell and a 16% increase in vehicle range compared to prior cells, enabled by dry-electrode manufacturing and larger cell geometry; independent reports have noted uneven progress in production ramp-up.[129]

International Expansion

Tesla expanded internationally through key manufacturing facilities. Gigafactory Shanghai began vehicle production in December 2019 and produced its 4 millionth vehicle in December 2025.[130] Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg officially opened on March 22, 2022, reaching production of 500,000 Model Y vehicles by March 2025.[131]

Autopilot/FSD and regulatory scrutiny

Elon Musk has set ambitious timelines for Tesla's Full Self-Driving (FSD) capabilities, including predictions from 2016 onward for full autonomy, though these have experienced delays.[132][133] Tesla's FSD centers on camera-based vision and neural networks under Musk's direction.[134] Despite progress, FSD has faced regulatory scrutiny, including a 2025 NHTSA investigation into approximately 2.9 million vehicles for Full Self-Driving-related traffic violations, such as running red lights, following multiple incident reports.[135] Musk maintains that FSD's neural network approach will achieve unsupervised autonomy.[136]

Robotics and future concepts

In robotics, Musk announced the Optimus humanoid robot in 2021 for repetitive tasks, with Gen 2 unveiled in 2023 demonstrating improved dexterity.[137] Musk envisions Optimus generating significant economic value.[138]Musk unveiled the Cybercab robotaxi in October 2024 as a fully autonomous vehicle, targeting production before 2027.[139] Prior to Cybercab production, Tesla launched a limited robotaxi service in June 2025 using Model Y vehicles with Full Self-Driving software and human safety monitors, initially in Austin, Texas.[140] The service expanded to the San Francisco Bay Area in November 2025.[141]

Neuralink

Elon Musk founded Neuralink Corporation in 2016 as its CEO, assembling a team of neuroscientists and engineers to develop implantable brain-machine interfaces enabling high-bandwidth interaction between the human brain and computers.[10] The company's purpose centers on achieving symbiosis between biological and artificial intelligence to enhance human cognition, restore autonomy for individuals with neurological conditions, treat disorders such as paralysis and ALS, and mitigate risks from advanced AI.[142] Musk has provided initial funding and led investment rounds, including a $650 million Series E in June 2025.[143]

Development and Technology

Neuralink's N1 implant is a coin-sized, fully implantable brain-computer interface featuring ultra-thin flexible threads inserted into the cerebral cortex by a robotic system for minimally invasive, precise placement.[144] Preclinical studies in animals demonstrated stable neural recordings and thought-based control, including a 2021 demonstration of a monkey playing video games via neural signals without physical movement.[145] These efforts addressed biocompatibility issues, favoring flexible threads over rigid electrodes to improve long-term signal stability.

Human Trials and Progress

Neuralink's initial FDA application for human trials was rejected in 2022 over safety concerns but received clearance for a first-in-human study in May 2023.[146][147] The PRIME Study assesses the N1 implant's safety and efficacy for thought-based computer control in patients with quadriplegia or ALS. The first human implantation occurred in January 2024 with participant Noland Arbaugh, who, according to Neuralink reports, achieved high cursor control speeds and used the device for tasks like gaming and browsing.[148] Early thread retraction problems were mitigated through software updates. A second participant received the implant in July 2024 and demonstrated immediate thought-controlled cursor operation.[149]Neuralink has faced criticisms and regulatory scrutiny over its animal testing practices, including federal investigations into potential welfare violations, reports of approximately 1,500 animal deaths in experiments since 2017, and employee concerns about rushed procedures causing unnecessary suffering.[150][151][152] Neuroethicists and scientists have raised ethical issues regarding transparency, peer review norms, and the pace of development.[153]As of December 2025, human trials remain in early feasibility stages with ongoing recruitment, and Neuralink has received FDA Breakthrough Device Designation for its Blindsight initiative aimed at vision restoration.[154] The company plans further implants and applications like thought-to-speech interfaces, while appointing a former FDA regulator to lead medical affairs.[155][156]

The Boring Company

Concept and Projects

Elon Musk founded The Boring Company on December 21, 2016, to address urban traffic congestion through underground transportation networks as an alternative to surface infrastructure. The company's objective involves multi-level subterranean tunnels for point-to-point travel using electric vehicles and advanced tunnel boring machines (TBMs).[157][158]Operational projects include the 1.14-mile Hawthorne test tunnel in California, completed in December 2017 with the company's first TBM, Godot, to test feasibility. The Vegas Loop is the primary commercial deployment, featuring the 1.7-mile Las Vegas Convention Center (LVCC) Loop with three stations, operational since 2021, along with the Resorts World Connector. The system has approval for expansion to at least 68 miles, with an airport connection planned for early 2026 and the company projecting capacity for up to 90,000 passengers per hour.[159][160][161][162][163]The company has developed the Prufrock series of TBMs, aimed at achieving tunneling rates of up to one mile per week.[164]Proposed projects include the Music City Loop in Nashville, which is in planning, design, and permitting phases, with tunneling potentially beginning in early 2026. Several earlier proposals, such as the Chicago express tunnel, were abandoned due to regulatory challenges.[165]

Artificial Intelligence

OpenAI

Musk co-founded OpenAI on December 11, 2015, as a non-profit AI research laboratory aimed at developing artificial general intelligence (AGI) safely and for the benefit of humanity.[166] The organization's charter emphasized countering AI concentration in for-profit entities and committed to open-source research.[167] Musk served as a primary funder and board member alongside co-founders including Sam Altman, Greg Brockman, Ilya Sutskever, Wojciech Zaremba, and John Schulman.[168] He pledged up to $1 billion, contributing $45 million by his departure.[169]By late 2017, OpenAI discussed a for-profit subsidiary for scaling AGI development. According to OpenAI, Musk supported this but sought majority equity, board control, and access to Tesla resources, which leadership declined to avoid undue influence.[167] Musk resigned from the board on February 20, 2018, stating it was due to conflicts with Tesla's AI efforts for autonomous driving and robotics.[170][171][172] Following his exit, OpenAI established a capped-profit arm in 2019 with Microsoft investments, shifting toward proprietary models. Musk has criticized these changes as deviating from the original mission of openness and safety.[167][173]

xAI

xAI was incorporated in Nevada on March 9, 2023, and announced on July 12, 2023, to develop AI systems aimed at understanding the true nature of the universe and accelerating scientific discovery.[174][175][176] Musk recruited experts from organizations including DeepMind, OpenAI, Google Research, Microsoft Research, and Tesla.[177] The company used public data from the X platform for training.[175]Musk has stated that progress depends on asking better questions, referencing The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. xAI's Grok chatbot, introduced on November 4, 2023, is a large language model with a tone inspired by The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and JARVIS from Iron Man.[178] Musk has argued that competitors' safety filters suppress inquiry.[179] Grok access began for X Premium+ subscribers and expanded, with the initial model open-sourced in March 2024.[180] Later versions improved reasoning, multimodal processing, and real-time handling.[181] Grok has generated controversial outputs, including antisemitic content, references to "white genocide," and emphasis on fertility rates; xAI attributed these to updates, inputs, or prompting, issuing corrections and apologies.[182][183][184][185][186][187][188]In October 2025, Musk announced xAI's game studio for AI-driven video games, planning a release by the end of 2026.[189][190]

Twitter/X Acquisition

Purchase and Rebranding

In January 2022, Elon Musk began purchasing Twitter shares, accumulating a 9.2% stake by early April.[191][192] On April 14, 2022, Musk offered to acquire the company at $54.20 per share, valuing it at approximately $44 billion.[193][194] In July 2022, Musk sought to terminate the agreement, alleging misrepresentation of spam and bot accounts; Twitter sued to enforce the deal.[195][193] Musk notified Twitter of his intent to proceed at the original price on October 4, 2022, and the acquisition closed on October 27, 2022, taking the company private and delisting it from the NYSE.[196][197] Musk then dismissed CEO Parag Agrawal and other executives.[198] Musk described free speech and Twitter's role as a "digital town square" as key motivations.[199][200]On July 23, 2023, Musk announced the rebranding to X, replacing the bird logo with an "𝕏" symbol the next day.[201][202][203][204] The domain shifted to x.com on May 17, 2024.[205][206]

Policy Reforms and Free Speech Emphasis

Content moderation approach

Musk has framed X as prioritizing free speech, identifying as a "free speech absolutist" and integrating xAI's Grok for truth-seeking.[207][208] Musk and some commentators cited the Twitter Files—internal documents released post-acquisition—as evidence of pre-acquisition moderation suppressing conservative viewpoints, including flagging of content on COVID-19, the 2020 election, and the New York Post's Hunter Biden laptop story in coordination with government officials; others disputed that interpretation as reflecting policy enforcement rather than bias.[209][210] Musk also noted external pressures, such as potential fines under the EU's Digital Services Act.[211] In November 2022, Musk introduced "freedom of speech, not freedom of reach," limiting visibility of harmful but legal content rather than removal.Musk announced "general amnesty" for suspended accounts on November 24, 2022, leading to reinstatements including Donald Trump's on November 19, 2022, following a user poll.[212][213] Reforms included bans on doxxing private location data, with temporary suspensions of journalists tracking Musk's jet in December 2022, most later reinstated.[214] Hate speech and violence policies saw adjustments with less emphasis on viewpoint-based removals; X exited the EU's disinformation code in June 2023.[215] Child sexual exploitation measures were strengthened via partnership with Thorn.[215]

Reception and criticism

The approach drew praise for broadening debate and criticism for challenges in curbing misinformation. Advertisers withdrew, citing safety risks and causing revenue losses; at the 2023 DealBook Summit, Musk responded to ad pressure with profanity.[216] In August 2024, X sued advertisers alleging coordinated boycotts.[217]

Studies and analysis

X expanded Community Notes, a crowdsourced fact-checking system; studies indicate it reduces engagement with misleading content without removals.[218] Analyses in Nature and PNAS reported higher misinformation sharing among conservative users globally.[219][220][221] A 2025 Sky News investigation using simulated neutral accounts found feeds showing roughly twice as much right-leaning as left-leaning British political content.[222] Musk stated the algorithm amplifies content based on user engagement signals like interactions and forwards.[223]Pre-acquisition, Twitter's internal study and peer-reviewed analyses found the algorithm amplified right-leaning political content more than left-leaning.[224][225] Post-acquisition, neutral users' feeds showed a right-lean, with some attributing this to left-leaning user exodus to platforms like Bluesky and reduced moderation allowing previously restricted content, alongside the "For You" feed's emphasis on engagement.[226][227]

Operational Changes and Monetization

Musk envisioned X as an "everything app" like WeChat, integrating social media, payments, and more.[228][229]Post-acquisition on October 27, 2022, Musk cut the workforce by 80%, from 7,500 to 1,500, targeting redundancies amid pre-acquisition losses over $4 million daily.[230][231][232][233] Efficiency efforts included automation, algorithmic tweaks, and 2025 Grok integration for feeds, with downsized moderation teams.[234][233]Monetization shifted from ads (89% of prior revenue) via X Premium subscriptions (launched late 2022, ~1.4 million subscribers by September 2024, ~$180 million annually) and 2023 creator ad-sharing, tightened in 2024-2025.[235][236][237][238] Ad revenues fell 51.7% initially but rebounded, with forecasts of $2.9 billion in 2025; supplemented by data licensing and tools like tipping.[239][240] In 2023, parts of the recommendation algorithm were open-sourced, excluding weights and training data.[227][241]

Political Involvement

Elon Musk donated to both major U.S. political parties in the early 2000s before shifting toward Republican positions by 2022. This evolution included endorsements of Donald Trump in the 2024 election, formation of America PAC with contributions exceeding $277 million, and co-leadership of the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) initiative. In 2025, Musk opposed a Trump administration spending bill, briefly announced the America Party following an X poll, and maintained engagements with international leaders on policy issues.[242][243]

Key Issue Positions

• Free speech: Musk describes free speech as the bedrock of democracy and has positioned X to prioritize truth-seeking.[244][245]
• Regulation and DEI: Musk opposes overregulation and supports reducing diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives in favor of merit-based systems.[246]
• Woke mind virus: Musk has characterized the 'woke mind virus' as a threat to civilization, linking it to transgender ideology—stating it 'killed' his son through gender transition—and to 'civilizational suicidal empathy' in immigration policies that he views as self-destructive.[247][248]
• Immigration: Musk supports high-skilled legal immigration via H-1B visas but opposes lax enforcement of illegal immigration, citing impacts on housing and culture.[249]
• Demographics: Musk identifies sub-replacement birth rates, such as 1.6 in the U.S. as of 2023, as a risk greater than overpopulation and advocates pro-natal policies.[250][251]
• Other positions: Musk supports voter ID laws, universal basic income, carbon taxes, nuclear energy, market-driven climate approaches, and identifies as a cultural Christian.[252][253][254]

Electoral Activity

• 2002–2016: Donated over $1 million, roughly equally to Democrats and Republicans, including support for Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton's 2016 campaign.[255][256]
• 2022: Announced intent to vote Republican in midterms.[257][258]
• 2024: Endorsed Trump after July 13 assassination attempt; established America PAC in May, donating at least $277 million; participated in rallies and amplified pro-Trump messaging on X.[259][243][260][261]
• 2025: In January 2025, Musk and President Trump accused the prior Biden administration of stranding NASA astronauts Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams on the International Space Station by refusing SpaceX's earlier offer to return them via Crew Dragon, attributing the delay to political motivations ahead of the election; NASA officials and the astronauts denied political interference, citing mission scheduling constraints as the reason for the February 2025 return plan.[262][263][264] Opposed Trump's spending bill; announced America Party on July 5 after X poll but shelved development by August.[265][266]

Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE)

Establishment and mandate

President-elect Donald Trump appointed Elon Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy to lead the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) initiative in November 2024.[267] Established by executive order on January 20, 2025, DOGE aimed to reduce federal waste, fraud, and abuse through spending cuts, technology modernization, and bureaucratic streamlining, with a target of $2 trillion in reductions.[268] Musk advocated for reforms including mass firings of federal employees and abolition of underperforming agencies.[269] He appeared with a chainsaw symbolizing cuts at the Conservative Political Action Conference in February 2025.[270]

Actions

DOGE pursued staffing reductions, including offering buyouts to over 2 million federal workers on January 8, 2025, leading to more than 70,000 positions eliminated across agencies such as the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.[271][272][273] It terminated over 13,000 federal contracts and grants, canceled all diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) contracts valued at over $1 billion, and exposed alleged fraud in entitlement programs.[274][275][276] Efforts also targeted regulatory deletions exceeding 100,000 rules.[277] In February 2025, the Department of Justice dismissed a civil enforcement action against SpaceX, which critics described as regulatory capture.[278][279]

Claims of impact

DOGE reported terminating contracts and grants yielding approximately $61 billion in savings and claimed cumulative savings of about $220 billion by November 2025.[274] These figures, self-reported on the DOGE website, have been disputed for methodological errors, overstatements, and lack of independent verification, with analyses indicating actual savings were often lower.[280][281]

Reception and oversight

DOGE faced criticisms for secrecy, potential illegal firings, privacy violations, and disregard for legal processes, prompting Freedom of Information Act lawsuits, Privacy Act challenges, and judicial findings that some agency closure attempts were likely unconstitutional.[282][283] Musk departed on May 30, 2025, concluding his 130-day term, and later described the initiative as only "somewhat successful," stating he would not repeat the role.[284][285]

2025 Feud with Trump and New Party Formation

In June 2025, Musk opposed President Donald Trump's "One Big Beautiful Bill," criticizing it for increasing national debt.[286][287]Trump dismissed Musk's stance and threatened to revoke subsidies and contracts for Tesla and SpaceX.[288][289]The dispute intensified in late June and early July 2025, with Musk questioning administration transparency and Trump suggesting reviews of Musk's immigration status.[290][291][292]On July 5, 2025, Musk announced the America Party as a centrist alternative, following an X poll.[265][293] Trump threatened scrutiny of Musk's contracts.[294][295]By August 2025, Musk shelved America Party development.[266] Tensions persisted into October over regulatory issues, contributing to changes in NASA leadership.[296][297][298]

International Political Engagements

Musk met with foreign leaders including Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in June 2023, French President Emmanuel Macron in 2023, Chinese President Xi Jinping at a dinner in San Francisco in November 2023 and earlier with then-Premier Li Keqiang in 2019, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2014–2015 including a Tesla Model S test drive, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in September 2023, and Argentine President Javier Milei in April 2024.[299][300][301][302][303][304][305]Reports indicated regular contact with Russian President Vladimir Putin since late 2022 on space, geopolitics, and Starlink.[306][307] The Kremlin denied regular contacts, confirming only a pre-2022 call.[308] Musk dismissed the reports without denial.[309] In February 2025, Musk stated Putin "can't afford me."[310]In November 2023, Musk visited Israel after the October 7 Hamas attacks, meeting Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and President Isaac Herzog, and announced Starlink deployment.[311] In January 2024, he visited Auschwitz-Birkenau.[312]Musk supported British activist Tommy Robinson via X endorsements and reported financial contributions to legal defenses.[313][314][315] In September 2025, he addressed a rally organized by Robinson.[316]Musk promoted Germany's Alternative for Germany (AfD) party ahead of the February 2025 election and congratulated its co-leader.[317][318] In December 2025, Musk advocated abolishing the EU to return sovereignty to countries.[319]

Legal and Regulatory Battles

Securities and Corporate Governance

In August 2018, Elon Musk tweeted that he had "funding secured" to take Tesla private at $420 per share. The SEC charged Musk and Tesla with securities fraud, alleging the statement misled investors by lacking a reasonable basis and causing stock fluctuations.[320] They settled with $20 million penalties each, Musk stepped down as chairman for three years while remaining CEO, and Tesla implemented oversight for Musk's communications, including pre-approval of material tweets.[320] The U.S. Supreme Court declined Musk's challenge to the pre-approval requirement in April 2024.[321]The SEC alleged Musk violated disclosure rules in his 2022 Twitter stock purchases by delaying reporting after exceeding 5% ownership, enabling additional purchases at lower prices.[322] Musk argued the disclosures were timely and accurate; the case remains ongoing after he rejected a settlement demand and moved to dismiss.[323]Tesla's 2025 filings disclosed related party transactions with Musk-affiliated entities like SpaceX, xAI, X Corp., and The Boring Company, including product sales and payments, reviewed by the Audit Committee under policies ensuring fair terms.[4] Following reincorporation in Texas, Tesla amended bylaws to require 3% ownership for derivative suits, aiming to deter frivolous litigation after the Tornetta ruling.[324]In Tornetta v. Musk, the Delaware Court of Chancery rescinded Musk's $56 billion 2018 compensation package in January 2024, holding him a controlling shareholder subject to entire fairness review, which the process and price failed; a later ratification attempt was rejected. In December 2025, the Delaware Supreme Court reversed the rescission, reinstating the package.[325][326]

Defamation and Employment Litigation

Defamation

Musk called cave rescuer Vernon Unsworth "pedo guy" on Twitter in 2018 after criticism of his submarine offer. Unsworth sued for defamation, alleging implication of pedophilia; Musk argued it was slang for "creepy old man." A jury ruled in Musk's favor in 2019.[327]In 2023, Musk replied to a video of Ben Brody in an altercation, suggesting a "false flag" involving possible Antifa ties. Brody sued for defamation, claiming amplified harassment; Musk called it an impulsive error. The case remains unresolved after denial of dismissal motions.[328]

Tesla workplace and discrimination litigation

Former engineer Cristina Balan alleged wrongful termination after raising safety concerns; Tesla cited performance issues. An arbitrator dismissed claims, but the Ninth Circuit vacated the award in 2025 for procedural error.[329]Tesla faced suits over alleged racial harassment at Fremont, including Owen Diaz's awards reduced and settled in 2024. EEOC and California suits allege systemic discrimination; a proposed class action was decertified in 2025.[330][331]

X workforce and severance litigation

After acquiring Twitter in 2022 and dismissing 6,300 employees, Musk faced suits from executives for unpaid severance, settled in 2025.[332] A class action over layoff notice led to a tentative $500 million settlement, though disputed by some former Twitter employees.[333][334]

Space and Telecom Regulation and Contracting

SpaceX has disputed FAA requirements on launches, environmental reviews, and penalties, arguing overreach delays NASA and Defense contracts. The FAA proposed $633,009 fines in 2024 for protocol violations; SpaceX rejected them and plans to sue.[335][336]Such delays affected missions, including the 2025 return of stranded astronauts via SpaceX after Boeing issues.[337] Environmental suits over facilities were partly dismissed. In 2025, scrutiny of Musk firms' contracts amid his advisory role found no wrongdoing, with awards deemed competitive.[338][339]In 2025, xAI faced regulatory challenges over air permits for methane gas turbines at its Colossus data center in Memphis, Tennessee, with environmental groups and the NAACP alleging Clean Air Act violations due to initial unpermitted operations. The Shelby County Health Department issued permits in July, and an appeal was dismissed 6-1 by the Memphis and Shelby County Air Pollution Control Board in December 2025, allowing operations to proceed.[340]

Personal Life

Health

Musk contracted malaria in 2000 during a safari in South Africa, requiring hospitalization and treatment. In 2013, he injured his neck attempting a judo throw on a sumo wrestler, resulting in chronic pain addressed by multiple surgeries. During his 2021 hosting of Saturday Night Live, Musk disclosed having Asperger's syndrome. He has used prescription ketamine intermittently for depression under medical supervision and has passed required drug tests for his companies and contracts.[341][342][343]

Work Habits and Routines

Musk follows an intense work schedule often exceeding 100 hours per week, including periods sleeping at factories during production challenges. He practices intermittent fasting and targets six hours of sleep nightly.[344][345]

Romantic Relationships

Musk married Justine Wilson in 2000; they divorced in 2008 and had six children, one of whom died in infancy. He married Talulah Riley in 2010, divorced in 2012, remarried in 2013, and divorced again in 2016. Musk had an intermittent relationship with Grimes (Claire Boucher) from 2018 to 2022, resulting in three children. In 2022, he was reported to be dating actress Natasha Bassett.[346] Musk has been in an alleged relationship with Ashley St. Clair since May 2023, resulting in one child, Romulus (born September 2024).[347] He shares four children with Neuralink executive Shivon Zilis—twins Strider and Azure (born 2021), Arcadia, and Seldon—through co-parenting, with their romantic status unclear.[348][349][350][351]

Hobbies

Musk enjoys reading, video games—including Elden Ring and competitive play in Quake, where he has claimed to have been one of the best players,[352] Diablo 4, in which he achieved top 20 worldwide rankings,[353] and Path of Exile 2, where he reached notable leaderboard positions—[354] and aviation, for which he holds a private pilot's license and owns a jet trainer. He engages with pop culture, including anime such as Death Note, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Ghost in the Shell, Spirited Away, Princess Mononoke, Fullmetal Alchemist, and Your Name, and films, with the original Star Wars cited as his all-time favorite.[355][356][357]

Religious and Philosophical Beliefs

Musk has described himself as agnostic, emphasizing empirical science, rational inquiry, and first-principles reasoning. In a December 2025 interview, he stated that he looks up to "the Creator" and "I believe this universe came from something."[358] From 2023, he identified as a "cultural Christian," valuing principles like compassion for societal stability. He supports the simulation hypothesis, suggesting reality may be a computer simulation.[359][360]

Children

Musk has fathered 14 children with four women. His children include five surviving with Justine Wilson, three with Grimes, four with Shivon Zilis, and one with Ashley St. Clair. A notable dispute involves his transgender daughter Vivian Jenna Wilson (born Xavier Alexander Musk), who in 2022 legally distanced herself from him.[361][362][363]

Wealth

Valuation Drivers and Fluctuations

Elon Musk is the world's wealthiest individual, with a net worth of approximately $749 billion as of December 2025, predominantly driven by equity stakes in Tesla, SpaceX, xAI Holdings (following its merger with X), and ownership of X, where Tesla's publicly traded shares account for the majority of fluctuations due to market pricing.[364][13][365] SpaceX's private valuation contributes substantially via Musk's ownership, influenced by funding rounds, launches, and Starlink growth.[13] Stakes in xAI and X provide potential from AI advancements and platform recovery, though illiquid and subject to estimation variability. Liquidity constraints persist, as Musk relies on loans against Tesla shares to avoid market-disrupting sales.[366]Key valuation drivers include Tesla's quarterly deliveries and autonomy progress, correlating with stock movements; SpaceX benefits from NASA and Defense contracts.[367] Musk's wealth also includes vested options from Tesla's 2018 performance-based compensation package, which added significantly upon milestone achievement, though the package faces ongoing legal challenges with implications for his equity value.[368]Musk's wealth has shown significant volatility, with surges during periods of strong Tesla performance and declines amid market challenges or EV sector slowdowns.[369][370]

Period	Milestone	Primary Driver
2012	$2 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, primarily Tesla and early ventures[371]
2013	$6.7 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2014	$8.4 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2015	$12 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2016	$10.7 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2017	$13.9 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2018	$19.9 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2019	$22.3 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
2020	$24.6 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla growth[371]
Aug 2020	Centibillionaire status ($100 billion)	Tesla stock surge amid EV adoption[369]
2021	$151 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla market cap surge[371]
Nov 2021	Then-record wealth peak ($340 billion)	Tesla market cap high[369]
2022	$219 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla performance[371]
Dec 2022	Record loss ($200 billion)	Tesla stock decline[370]
2023	$180 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, market fluctuations[371]
2024	$195 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, recovery in holdings[371]
March 2025	$342 billion	Annual Forbes estimate, Tesla and SpaceX valuations[371]
Dec 2025	$749 billion milestone	Restoration of Tesla stock options following court ruling and prior SpaceX/Tesla surges[364]

Philanthropy

Musk has described his companies as a form of philanthropy, stating that Tesla accelerates sustainable energy and SpaceX makes humanity multi-planetary to ensure long-term survival. He has emphasized preferring impactful outcomes over performative giving and claimed Tesla has done more for the environment than any single human by reducing CO2 emissions through electric vehicles.[372][373][216][374]In Tesla's Master Plan Part IV, announced in September 2025, Musk articulated a vision for "sustainable abundance," integrating technologies across his ventures—including Optimus robots for labor automation, Grok AI for intelligent management, photovoltaic energy and batteries for sustainable power, autonomous vehicles for mobility, and Starlink for global connectivity—to end scarcity, poverty, hunger, and opportunity inequality. He has stated that advancements like Optimus could dramatically increase per capita GDP by redefining economies around energy expenditure rather than traditional labor constraints, potentially enabling "universal high income" where work becomes optional and abundance is universally accessible.[375][376]

Musk Foundation

The Musk Foundation was established in 2002 by Elon Musk and Kimbal Musk in Los Angeles, California, and is now based in Austin, Texas. It provides grants supporting renewable energy research and advocacy, human space exploration research and advocacy, pediatric research, science and engineering education, and safe artificial intelligence development to benefit humanity.[377]IRS Form 990-PF filings indicate that for fiscal year 2023, the foundation reported $20.5 million in revenue, $237 million in expenses (primarily grants), and $536 million in assets. Assets have grown to approximately $14.7 billion through additional contributions. The foundation disbursed a record $474 million in grants in 2024. Over its lifetime, it has awarded an estimated $406 million in grants, separate from Musk's donations of around $7 billion in Tesla stock.[378][379][380]Notable grants by theme include:

• Renewable energy: $100 million to the XPRIZE Carbon Removal competition (2021), which awarded $50 million in 2025 for enhanced rock weathering; $250,000 to the Sierra Club Foundation (2014); $300,000 to the National Wildlife Federation (2014).[381][382]
• Human space exploration: Support for organizations conducting feasibility studies on Mars colonization.[377]
• Pediatric research: $55 million to St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (2021) for therapies against pediatric cancers and illnesses.[383]
• Science and engineering education: Funding for Khan Academy's STEM resources; $1 million to the Wikimedia Foundation (2020); support for Ad Astra school; over $20 million to Cameron County, Texas, school districts; $480,000 for water filtration and $424,000 for laptops in Flint, Michigan, schools (2018); approximately $100 million to The Foundation for a STEM-focused K-12 school in Austin (2023), with university expansion plans; $2.084 million to the Vesuvius Challenge for AI-deciphering ancient scrolls (2024); $350,000 to the Boys and Girls Club of Greater Memphis for youth programs (2025).[384][385][386][387][388][389][390][391][392][393]
• Safe artificial intelligence: $4 million to the Future of Life Institute; $12.7 million to OpenAI (2016–2020) for alignment and safety protocols, though Musk later criticized its for-profit shift.[394][395][378]

The foundation's payout rate fell below the IRS-mandated minimum of approximately 5% of assets annually during 2021–2023, prompting scrutiny over compliance and potential penalties.[383][396]

The Giving Pledge

In 2012, Musk signed The Giving Pledge, committing to donate the majority of his wealth to philanthropic causes during his lifetime or in his will. This aligns with the foundation's focus areas. Musk has expressed skepticism toward traditional philanthropy, arguing that for-profit innovations via his companies yield greater impact than grants, though he maintains they fulfill a philanthropic ethos.[397][398][377][399]

Public Image

Accolades and Global Influence

Musk maintains the most-followed account on X with 230 million followers, reflecting his prominent public profile. Ownership of X has positioned him to shape public discourse on free speech, policy, and cultural issues, with his posts frequently garnering widespread engagement and influencing global conversations.[400]Politically, Musk's $291 million in 2024 donations positioned him as a top influencer, culminating in his role co-leading the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) from January to May 2025, where efforts targeted federal spending reductions and regulatory cuts, reshaping aspects of U.S. governance.[401][402] These elements highlight Musk's capacity to effect systemic changes.Third-party recognitions include Bill Gates stating, "No one in our time who has done more to push the bounds of science and innovation than he has." Gates has also accused Musk of endangering lives, particularly children in developing countries, through reductions in U.S. foreign aid associated with the DOGE initiative. Musk countered by alleging significant fraud and waste in USAID, claiming that only about 10% of funds reach intended beneficiaries.[403][404][405] Citadel CEO Ken Griffin described Musk as one of the great entrepreneurs of his time, noting, "He runs Tesla, he runs SpaceX at a level of excellence that very few companies achieve."[406] President Donald Trump praised Musk as "one of the greatest business leaders and innovators the world has ever produced" for his DOGE contributions.[407] Peter Thiel admonished skeptics, "You should never bet against Elon."[408]

Recognition

Musk has received over 40 prestigious awards and honors for his achievements in entrepreneurship, engineering, and breakthroughs in reusable rocketry, battery technology, electric vehicles and sustainable energy. He has also attained wide press recognition, including five cover features on Time magazine, such as being named its 2021 Person of the Year.[409]Notable honors include election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2018 for exceptional contributions to space travel and engineering innovation,[410] peer-elected membership in the National Academy of Engineering in 2022 for pioneering advancements in reusable orbital rockets and electric vehicles,[411] the Heinlein Prize for Accomplishments in Commercial Space Activities in 2011 from the X Prize Foundation for SpaceX's breakthroughs in private spaceflight,[412] and the Royal Aeronautical Society Gold Medal in 2012 for advancing space transportation through reusable rockets.[413]Other notable awards include:

• Inc. Magazine Entrepreneur of the Year (2007)[414]
• Global Green Product Design Award (2006) for the Tesla Roadster[415]
• Index Design Award (2007) for the Tesla Roadster[416]
• AIAA George Low Space Transportation Award (2008)[417]
• National Space Society Wernher von Braun Memorial Award (2009)[418]

Criticisms

Critics have accused Musk of overpromising on product timelines, particularly with Tesla's Full Self-Driving (FSD) technology; in 2016, he claimed coast-to-coast autonomous drives the following year, and full deployment by 2018.[133] FSD currently operates at SAE Level 2+ (partial automation requiring constant driver supervision), not the SAE Level 4 (unsupervised autonomy) promised, though robotaxi unveilings have been delayed from August 2024 pending regulatory approvals.[419] Tesla's Cybertruck sales, initially planned for late 2021, began in 2023. At SpaceX, crewed Mars missions projected for 2024 have been delayed due to test failures.[420] Analysts have expressed skepticism that this pattern erodes credibility and may inflate valuations disconnected from actual delivery.[421]Tesla contested an OSHA citation in March 2025 regarding a contract worker's death at its Texas Gigafactory.[422] Reuters reported over 600 unreported injuries at SpaceX since 2014, including crushed limbs and amputations, attributed to production pressures.[423] The National Labor Relations Board charged SpaceX in January 2024 with illegally firing eight employees for an open letter criticizing Musk's X posts as distracting; the employees sued alleging wrongful termination.[424][425][426][427]At a January 20, 2025, post-inauguration rally, Musk placed his hand over his heart and extended his arm while stating "my heart goes out to you," a gesture some Democratic critics likened to a Nazi salute; the Anti-Defamation League described it as an "awkward enthusiastic motion" and Musk rejected the claims.[428] Musk's opposition to progressive policies and gender ideology, including his estrangement from his transgender-identifying son, has been cited amid attacks classified as domestic terrorism by U.S. authorities, including arsons and violent incidents, on Tesla facilities linked to his Trump ties.[429][247][430][431] Despite endorsing Trump in 2024, Musk criticized a Republican spending bill in June 2025 as a "disgusting abomination" increasing debt, and some conservatives have opposed his H-1B visa advocacy and government contracts for SpaceX and Tesla.[432][433][434]In 2018, the SEC charged Musk with securities fraud over his tweet "Am considering taking Tesla private at $420. Funding secured," resulting in a civil settlement totaling $40 million in penalties paid by Musk and Tesla, without admitting wrongdoing, and requiring Musk to step down as Tesla's chairman for three years.[435] At the 2023 shareholder trial over claims that the tweet misled investors, the jury unanimously found neither Musk nor Tesla liable.[436]

Cultural Impact

Elon Musk inspired elements of Tony Stark in the Iron Man films, with director Jon Favreau citing Musk as a model for the character's tech genius and ambition; Musk appeared as himself in Iron Man 2 (2010), pitching an electric jet to Stark.[437][438] He also appeared as himself in Machete Kills (2013), shaking hands with the protagonist Machete Cortez and wishing him success on a SpaceX rocket launch to combat a global threat.[439] In Transcendence (2014), Musk featured in a cameo as an audience member during a conference keynote addressing the transformative potential of artificial intelligence.[440] In Why Him? (2016), he portrayed a version of himself arriving dramatically at a family gathering via drone, engaging in a short conversation that highlights his eccentric billionaire persona.[441]Musk hosted Saturday Night Live in 2021.[442] Musk has made multiple appearances on popular podcasts, including the Joe Rogan Experience, where episodes such as #1169 have garnered over 69 million YouTube views, making them among the most viewed in the series, and the Lex Fridman Podcast, discussing topics such as technology, space exploration, and artificial intelligence.[443][444][445]

On X (formerly Twitter), with hundreds of millions of followers, Musk engages in meme culture, earning the "meme lord" label through humorous posts referencing numbers like 420 and 69, and influencing trends like Dogecoin's and Bitcoin's price surges via endorsements and announcements, with empirical studies confirming causal market impacts from his tweets.[446][447] In February 2021, Tesla purchased $1.5 billion worth of Bitcoin.[448] This extends to initiatives like naming the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) after the Doge meme.[449] Musk has denied being the pseudonymous Bitcoin creator Satoshi Nakamoto and suggested Nick Szabo as a likely figure behind its key concepts.